خرید و دانلود نسخه کامل کتاب Trading with the Enemy: Britain, France, and the 18th-Century Quest for a Peaceful World Order – Original PDF

From 1700 until 1752, Britain’s Julian calendar ran eleven days behind the Gregorian system used in France and much of the rest of western Europe. Moreover, in Britain, the start of the year was often dated from 25 March. Britain switched to the Gregorian calendar in 1752, skipping the eleven days between 2 and 14 September, and simultaneously adopted 1 January as the start of the year. I have cited all dates as they appear in original sources, but to avoid confusion, I alter the year where necessary to conform to the Gregorian style. In the eighteenth century, monetary sums in both France and Britain were denominated in monies of account known as the livre tournois in France and the pound sterling in Britain. Te actual coins in circulation, which varied widely in metallic content, and were often foreign in origin, did not conform to the livres, sols, and deniers, or the pounds, shillings, and pence of the monies of account. But the value of the latter in terms of silver or gold was strictly regulated in law, and prices and contracts were designated in these monies of account.