خرید و دانلود نسخه کامل کتاب Housing Policy in the United States Fourth Editio – Original PDF

Preface2 key topics in housing policy, they do so at greater length, at a higher level of detail, and with more technical jargon than is desirable for a general introduction to the field. I hope this text can serve as a guide to housing policy and provide a point of departure to more specialized readings. Why Housing Matters Few things intersect with and influence as many aspects of life as housing does: it is far more than shelter from the elements. As home, housing is the primary setting for family and domestic life, a place of refuge and relaxation from the routines of work and school, a private space. It is also loaded with symbolic value, as a marker of status and an expression of style. Housing is also valued for its location, for the access it provides to schools, parks, transportation, and shopping; and for the opportunity to live in the neighborhood of one’s choice. Housing is also a major asset for homeowners, the most widespread form of personal wealth. Although good housing in a good neighborhood is certainly no guarantee against tragedy or misfortune, inadequate housing increases one’s vulnerability to a wide range of troubles (Hernandez & Swope 2019; Taylor 2018). Physically deficient housing is associated with many health hazards. Ingestion of lead paint by children can lead to serious learning disabilities and behavioral problems. Dampness, mold, and cold can cause asthma, allergies, and other respiratory problems, as can rodent and cockroach infestations. Inadequate or excessive heat can raise the risk of health problems such as cardiovascular disease (Acevedo-Garcia & Osypuk 2008; Bratt 2000; Cohen 2011; Kreiger & Higgens 2002; Lubell, Crain, & Cohen 2007; Lubell et al. 2011; Newman 2008a, 2008b). Research on the link between housing conditions and mental health is less extensive, but also indicates adverse consequences from inadequate or crowded conditions. Unstable housing conditions that cause families to move frequently are stressful and often interfere with education and employment (Been et al. 2010; Desmond & Kimbro 2015; Lubell, Crain, & Cohen 2007; Lubell & Brennan 2007; Rothstein 2000). When low-income families face high rent burdens, they have little money left to meet other needs. Vulnerability to crime is strongly influenced by residential location. People who live in distressed neighborhoods face a greater risk of being robbed, assaulted—or worse—than inhabitants of more affluent areas (Bratt 2000). Perhaps the importance of housing for the well-being of individuals and families is brought into sharpest relief in light of the depredations of homelessness. The homeless are at much greater risk of physical and mental illness, substance abuse, assault, and, in the case of children, frequent and prolonged absences from school. The mere lack of a mailing address makes it immeasur- ably more difficult to apply for jobs or public assistance, or to enroll children in school (Bassuk & Olivet 2012; Bingham, Green, & White 1987; Cunningham 2009; Hoch 1998). One of the many insights of Matthew Desmond’s book Evicted (2016) is that eviction and homelessness are both a consequence and cause of poverty. Poverty puts people at risk of becoming homeless, but homelessness itself can drag people down into poverty. The loss of one’s home, or even the threat of homelessness posed by eviction proceedings, can make it extremely difficult to keep or find a job. People who experience evictions and homelessness as children are especially likely live in poverty as adults. Housing and the Environment As a major part of the national economy and the predominant land use, housing affects the envir- onment profoundly. For one, it is a major source of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas emissions, the principal cause of global warming. Residential heating, cooling, and electrical Introduction 3 consumption alone accounted for 20 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions in the United States in 2018 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2020: Table ES-14). Housing also accounts for a major portion of the greenhouse gases generated by transportation, which comprised 36 percent of total emissions in 2018 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2020: ES- 13; see also Ewing & Rong 2008). “Household travel,” as explained by the Federal Highway Administration, “accounts for the vast majority (over 80 percent) of miles traveled on our nation’s roadways and three quarters of the CO2 emissions from ‘on-road’ sources” (Carbon Footprint of Daily Travel 2009). The amount of greenhouse gases produced by household travel depends on (1) the number and fuel efficiency of cars a household owns; (2) the extent to which people travel by car as opposed to other modes of transportation; and (3) the number of miles driven. Residential settlement patterns influence the latter two of these factors. Densely settled areas with varied land uses, especially when housing is located near workplaces, schools, stores, and other destinations, are most conducive to public transit, walking, and bicycling. And when people do drive, the distances traveled tend to be shorter. For example, the Federal Highway Administration estimates that households residing in very high density areas with 5,000 to 10,000 households per square mile generate about half the CO2 in their daily travel than households residing in very low-density areas with 30 to 250 households per square mile. Moreover, households residing within one quarter mile of public transit generate about 25 per- cent less CO2 through their travel than households living further away (Carbon Footprint of Daily Travel 2009). Similarly, a study of transportation patterns in 83 large metropolitan areas found that after accounting for income and other demographic factors, residents in the most compact regions drove far less than their counterparts in the most sprawling regions. For example, Portland, OR, had 30 percent fewer vehicle miles driven per resident than did Atlanta, Georgia, one of the least dense metropolitan areas. At a more local scale, a study of travel patterns in King County, Washington found that residents of the county’s most “walk- able” neighborhoods drove 26 percent fewer miles per day than their counterparts in the more auto-dependent sections of the county (Ewing et al. 2007). A study of travel patterns in Hamilton County, Ohio (including the metro area of Cincinnati), found that land-use diversity at the neighborhood level was the single most important determinant of household vehicle miles traveled (Byahut 2012). If the United States is to succeed in curtailing its greenhouse gas emissions and slow global warming, housing development will need to become more compact and better integrated with other land uses (Ewing et al. 2007). This will require a reversal of longstanding development patterns in which single-family housing is built at increasingly low densities, and housing is segregated from most other land uses